Recommendations for Internal Revenue Code of 1986 (Title 26) Sources
1. I recommend to students three Title 26 sources (actually each of these sources have all the Titles, but I link here only Title 26):
a complete compilation, restatement, and revision of the general and permanent laws of the United States which conforms to the understood policy, intent, and purpose of the Congress in the original enactments, with such amendments and corrections as will remove ambiguities, contradictions, and other imperfections both of substance and of form, separately stated, with a view to the enactment of each title as positive law.
This law gives OLRC the discretion in compiling Non-Positive Law Codes to:
Difficulties inhere in the authority of the Non-Positive Law Code Title where there might be differences with the Statutes at Large (as amended).
1. I recommend to students three Title 26 sources (actually each of these sources have all the Titles, but I link here only Title 26):
- Office of Law Revision Title 26 here where specific code sections can be searched and, via an outline structure, Title 26 can be viewed (this presumably is the most official; the House of Representative's Office of Law Revision Counsel offers a helpful detailed guide to the United States Code and Content here)
- The Government Printing Office ("GPO") Title 26, here.
- LII here.
a complete compilation, restatement, and revision of the general and permanent laws of the United States which conforms to the understood policy, intent, and purpose of the Congress in the original enactments, with such amendments and corrections as will remove ambiguities, contradictions, and other imperfections both of substance and of form, separately stated, with a view to the enactment of each title as positive law.
This law gives OLRC the discretion in compiling Non-Positive Law Codes to:
Difficulties inhere in the authority of the Non-Positive Law Code Title where there might be differences with the Statutes at Large (as amended).
- Detailed Guide to the United States Code Content and Features, here.
- Office of Law Revision Counsel, Positive Law Codification, here.
- House Office of the Legislative Counsel, HOLC Guide to Legislative Drafting, here.
- Sam Wice, When to Refer to the U.S. Code Versus the Underlying Statute, 36 Yale J. on Reg.: Notice & Comment (7/25/18), here.
- Will Baude, Reminder: The United States Code is not the law (The Volokh Conspiracy 5/15/17), here.
- Tobias A. Dorsey, Some Reflections on Not Reading the Statutes, 10 Green Bag 282 (2007), here.
Of these Guides, I find the easiest to use is the LII version. These Title 26 sources also offer other Titles of the U.S.C. A helpful guide to the U.S.C. system is offered by the Office of Law Revision here.
For the U.S. Code Sections (Title 26 and other Titles) most relevant to tax crimes, see the page titled Tax Crimes Statutes, here.
On derivations of IRC 1939 and 1955, see Joint Committee on Taxation, Derivations of Code Sections of the Internal Revenue Codes of 1939 and 1954 (JCS-1-92), January 21, 1992, here. The purpose of the publication (p. i) is:
2. On U.S. Codes (Including the Internal Revenue Code of 1986) and Uncodified Tax Legislation. The following is from John A. Townsend, Federal Tax Procedure (2026 Student Edition which omits footnotes): D. U.S.C.-Positive Law Codes, NonPositive Law Codes, and Uncodified Legislation.
1. Introduction.
I discuss in this section the United States Code (often cited as U.S.C., with a Title and a Section number, such as 18 U.S.C. § 371). There are nuances to the United States Code some of which I discuss in the text and in the footnotes. I think it helpful here to cite an article because it offers excellent detailed discussion, beyond my discussion here. Jesse Cross, Where Is Statutory Law?, 108 Cornell L. Rev. 1041 (2023) (hereinafter “Cross, Statutory Law”).
2. General–Codified and Uncodified Laws.
Congress enacts law. Those laws appear in the Statutes at Large. The Statutes at Large are “legal evidence of the law.” The Statutes at Large are published in chronological order. Each Statute at Large is the law that was enacted. The text of the Statute at Large for an original enactment of a particular law does not show later Statutes at Large that amend the original, a process that can create a statutory patchwork and create difficulty for those needing the current law as of any later moment in time.
In order to make the law more accessible, many laws–Statutes at Large–are presented in the U.S. Code (“U.S.C.”) which arranges laws into 54 broad “Titles” according to subject matter. The Office of Law Revision Counsel (“OLRC”) within the House of Representatives compiles and maintains these Code Titles, which are published on the Web: https://uscode.house.gov/.
These U.S.C. Titles are of two types–(i) Titles that, after compilation, have been enacted by Congress (“Positive Law Titles”) and (ii) Titles that have not been enacted but are the OLRC’s editorial compilations of the underlying Statutes at Large (“Non-Positive Law Code Titles”). • Positive Law Code Titles: A positive law Title is a federal statute. For example, Title 18, Crimes and Criminal Procedure, has been enacted as positive law, hence Title 18 is a Positive Law Title; Title 18 is the Statute at Large for all of Title 18 and is legal evidence of the law. Where the U.S. Code is enacted as positive law (such as Title 18) and subsequently amended, the amended U.S. Code is the law because the Code is the Statute at Large rather than a compilation of the Statutes at Large. Perhaps confusingly, the Internal Revenue Code of 1986 (“IRC”) is the law, the Statute at Large, which the OLRC compiles by mirror-imaging into Title 26. I discuss the IRC role in the Positive Law universe below. • Non-Positive Law Code Titles: Where the U.S. Code itself is not enacted as a Positive Law Title but is instead the OLRC compilation from Statutes at Large, the U.S. Code is only prima facie evidence of the law (i.e., the underlying Statutes at Large) but is not the law; the Statutes at Large are the evidence of the law. In compiling (or assembling) the Non-Positive Law Code Titles, Congress authorized the OLRC to prepare
• to conform the Code to the enacted text’s purpose and correct ambiguities and other imperfections of substance and form. Of course, any changes made by OLRC are not the law; rather the original text of the Statutes at Large is the law, so this a large caveat in relying only on the text of Non-Positive Law Codes. Thus, the Non-Positive Law Code text may be “improved statutory text” but may or may not correctly interpret the text in the Statutes at Large. And the Non-Positive Law Code text is only prima facie evidence of the law, meaning that litigants can claim the original Statute at Law text (as amended) is the law rather than the gloss OLRC put on it. Fortunately, the differences usually are not outcome determinative in litigation.• “omit provisions from the Code entirely that it deems not general and permanent;”• “rearrange statutory provisions to group them by subject matter (building on similar work by prior codifiers);” and • “move provisions outside the main text of the Code, relocating them into marginal notes—even though they are duly-enacted law * * * .”
The Internal Revenue Code (“IRC”) was first enacted as positive law in 1939 and then again in 1954 and 1986. Unlike the other Positive Law USC Titles (e.g., Title 18), the IRC was not enacted as a Positive Law USC Title with a Title number (e.g., 26) but was enacted as the IRC (now officially the Internal Revenue Code of 1986 (“IRC 1986” or just “IRC”)). Title 26 (26 U.S.C.) is not a Positive Law Title (hence not Positive Law); the IRC is Positive Law. The IRC is the only Positive Law Code that was not enacted as a Positive Law Code Title in the U.S.C. Technically, this means that references to the law should be to IRC 1986, it is common to refer to the compilation into Title 26 (a non-Positive Law mirror image of IRC 1986). There should be no difference in the statutory provisions between the IRC 1986 and Title 26, except for any lag time in compiling amendments to IRC 1986 into periodic versions of Title 26; however, compiled non-Positive Law Titles often have very helpful compiler’s notes for the various sections (see discussion below regarding off-Code provisions). For any serious research project, one should always consult these notes.
Since Title 26 is technically a compilation of the Statute at Large–IRC 1986– in theory the OLRC might have authority in making the compilation into Title 26, to correct or otherwise improve the text in Title 26 based on its understanding of purpose and substance. I understand that the OLRC does not attempt such changes to Title 26 but does offer very helpful notes (such as statutory history) that can assist in interpreting IRC 1986 appearing as Title 26.
There is a wrinkle here, though. Congress does not re-enact the IRC except on rare occasions with many years intervening (there have been only 3 IRCs since Congress began enacting IRCs in 1939). For large positive law Codes in a dynamic environment (such as tax), the Codes will be amended often. To cite the actual law (as opposed to the 26 U.S.C. compilation) as of a given date, one would have to cite the most recent IRC (in this case, IRC of 1986) and track and cite all statutes amending the relevant section of that IRC. The annual compilation in 26 U.S.C. does that work by bringing its compiled sections up to date frequently (soon after enactment of the amendment to the IRC) with a tracking of the statutes producing up to date text. In many cases, persons needing to cite the IRC cite 26 U.S.C. (which, to repeat, for each year is a mirror image of the most recent IRC), paying attention to the amendments to the IRC to ensure working with the text of the law as applicable to the time period or event in question. Thus, if one cites§ 7805 in a case where 2012 is the relevant year, the citation would be 26 U.S.C. § 7805 (2012) or, in cases where the year is not significant (such as in a law review article discussing law generally, with assumption that it is a current version), one could leave off the year (e.g., 26 U.S.C. § 7805). (I leave off the year in this book except where dating is critical.) A quick and dirty way to use 26 U.S.C. (and indeed all U.S.C. Titles) is to refer to the current version and make sure from the notes that the text has not been amended at any relevant time that would make the current text potentially not applicable. Alternatively, one could cite the original IRC with explanation to show relevant amendments but that is much more tedious than the U.S.C. strategy and, in my experience, rarely done for the IRC. Remember that, as noted above, the Code compilation in the 26 U.S.C. is prima facie evidence of the law. That is generally good enough for the work courts and practitioners do.
A similar problem is encountered for statutes that are compiled into Non-Positive Law Titles. The underlying statutes are the law, not the Non-Positive Law Title compilations. Hence, properly, citations to that law should be to the underlying statutes and amendments rather than to the Non-Positive Law Titles. The logistical problem is that the Statutes at Large are not updated with amendments after the date of enactment. Care must be taken in working with Non-Positive Law Titles. The practical solution as with amendments to Positive Law Titles is to work from the relevant version of the U.S.C. compilation where the compilers have done that work and there is a presumption that the compiled version of the relevant statute accurately states the law.
As should be apparent, however, Non-Positive Law U.S.C. Titles may not tell the whole story that might be discerned from a direct reading of the Statutes at Large (including original enactment and all amendments and statutory and legislative histories). For example, related sections of the Statutes at Large may be split up in the codification process or even there might be a change in language. Indeed, the same process of peeling back statutory and legislative histories is required for Positive Law Titles (e.g., 18 U.S.C.) which incorporate amendments to statutory text previously enacted.
Moreover, there is law–enacted statutes–that is never codified (i.e., for tax legislation, not codified into the IRC of 1986 (then compiled into 26 U.S.C.) and appears only in the Statutes at Large); in such cases, that law either does not appear in the official statutory text of the U.S.C. but, at least sometimes, may appear in a note to a section in the official U.S.C. Title; care should be taken to ensure that third party publishers’ versions of the Title include those notes which can be helpful. A good tax example of such “uncodified” tax law is § 530 of the Revenue Act of 1978, which is legislation giving some taxpayers relief in the ongoing problem of characterizing service providers as employees or independent contractors; that uncodified provision is referred to in a note to 26 U.S.C. § 3401. (I discuss § 530 relief in its context later in the text beginning p. 97.) IRC 1986 does not alert the reader to § 530, but in the compilation into Title 26, the compilers offer helpful notes including the off-Code§ 530 or other editorial comments. But, the compilers are not always so helpful in identifying off-Code law.
One issue that I think arises principally for Non-Positive Law Titles (which are compilations of the underlying Statutes at Large) relates to enacted findings and purposes which are statements enacted into the Statutes at Large. The enacted findings and purposes serve the same function as statements and purposes appearing in legislative history. A stated concern for the use of legislative history in statutory interpretation is that it is not enacted. Enacted findings and purposes are enacted and thus serve a legitimate role in statutory interpretation under any interpretive strategy. When a Statute at Large is compiled into the Non-Positive Law Titles, the enacted findings and purposes will usually not be incorporated into the Code sections and will often appear only in notes to the compiled Code sections. It is thus critically important to refer to the Statutes at Large (where the findings and purposes will appear prominently) or to the notes in the Non-Positive Law Titles. This is not an issue for the IRC because the statute is the Code and the findings and purposes appear in the legislative history (usually drafted with the involvement of the staff of the Joint Committee on Taxation (“JCT”)). In all events, it is probably good practice to always read the notes of sections in the Code.
The principal statutes cited in this book are all positive law. As noted the IRC itself was enacted as a separate law (rather than as a Code). Where I cite a section without further description, I will be referring to the IRC. When I cite other Code provisions, I will identify the Title. The other commonly cited statutes are positive law Titles: • 5 U.S.C., Government Organizations and Employees (including sections commonly called the Administrative Procedure Act for the source prior to codifying as positive law Title). • 11 U.S.C., Bankruptcy • 18 U.S.C., Crimes and Criminal Procedure • 31 U.S.C., Money and Finance (including the money and financial reporting requirements such as FBARs).
3. For further reading, I recommend the following:
D. U.S.C.-Positive Law Codes, NonPositive Law Codes, and Uncodified Legislation.1. Introduction.I discuss in this section the United States Code (often cited as U.S.C., with a Title and a Section number, such as 18 U.S.C. § 371). There are nuances to the United States Code some of which I discuss in the text and in the footnotes. I think it helpful here to cite an article because it offers excellent detailed discussion, beyond my discussion here. Jesse Cross, Where Is Statutory Law?, 108 Cornell L. Rev. 1041 (2023) (hereinafter “Cross, Statutory Law”).2. General–Codified and Uncodified Laws.Congress enacts law. Those laws appear in the Statutes at Large. The Statutes at Large are “legal evidence of the law.” The Statutes at Large are published in chronological order. Each Statute at Large is the law that was enacted. The text of the Statute at Large for an original enactment of a particular law does not show later Statutes at Large that amend the original, a process that can create a statutory patchwork and create difficulty for those needing the current law as of any later moment in time.In order to make the law more accessible, many laws–Statutes at Large–are presented in the U.S. Code (“U.S.C.”) which arranges laws into 54 broad “Titles” according to subject matter. The Office of Law Revision Counsel (“OLRC”) within the House of Representatives compiles and maintains these Code Titles, which are published on the Web: https://uscode.house.gov/.These U.S.C. Titles are of two types–(i) Titles that, after compilation, have been enacted by Congress (“Positive Law Titles”) and (ii) Titles that have not been enacted but are the OLRC’s editorial compilations of the underlying Statutes at Large (“Non-Positive Law Code Titles”).• Positive Law Code Titles: A positive law Title is a federal statute. For example, Title 18, Crimes and Criminal Procedure, has been enacted as positive law, hence Title 18 is a Positive Law Title; Title 18 is the Statute at Large for all of Title 18 and is legal evidence of the law. Where the U.S. Code is enacted as positive law (such as Title 18) and subsequently amended, the amended U.S. Code is the law because the Code is the Statute at Large rather than a compilation of the Statutes at Large. Perhaps confusingly, the Internal Revenue Code of 1986 (“IRC”) is the law, the Statute at Large, which the OLRC compiles by mirror-imaging into Title 26. I discuss the IRC role in the Positive Law universe below.• Non-Positive Law Code Titles: Where the U.S. Code itself is not enacted as a Positive Law Title but is instead the OLRC compilation from Statutes at Large, the U.S. Code is only prima facie evidence of the law (i.e., the underlying Statutes at Large) but is not the law; the Statutes at Large are the evidence of the law. In compiling (or assembling) the Non-Positive Law Code Titles, Congress authorized the OLRC to prepare• to conform the Code to the enacted text’s purpose and correct ambiguities and other imperfections of substance and form. Of course, any changes made by OLRC are not the law; rather the original text of the Statutes at Large is the law, so this a large caveat in relying only on the text of Non-Positive Law Codes. Thus, the Non-Positive Law Code text may be “improved statutory text” but may or may not correctly interpret the text in the Statutes at Large. And the Non-Positive Law Code text is only prima facie evidence of the law, meaning that litigants can claim the original Statute at Law text (as amended) is the law rather than the gloss OLRC put on it. Fortunately, the differences usually are not outcome determinative in litigation.• “omit provisions from the Code entirely that it deems not general and permanent;”• “rearrange statutory provisions to group them by subject matter (building on similar work by prior codifiers);” and• “move provisions outside the main text of the Code, relocating them into marginal notes—even though they are duly-enacted law * * * .”The Internal Revenue Code (“IRC”) was first enacted as positive law in 1939 and then again in 1954 and 1986. Unlike the other Positive Law USC Titles (e.g., Title 18), the IRC was not enacted as a Positive Law USC Title with a Title number (e.g., 26) but was enacted as the IRC (now officially the Internal Revenue Code of 1986 (“IRC 1986” or just “IRC”)). Title 26 (26 U.S.C.) is not a Positive Law Title (hence not Positive Law); the IRC is Positive Law. The IRC is the only Positive Law Code that was not enacted as a Positive Law Code Title in the U.S.C. Technically, this means that references to the law should be to IRC 1986, it is common to refer to the compilation into Title 26 (a non-Positive Law mirror image of IRC 1986). There should be no difference in the statutory provisions between the IRC 1986 and Title 26, except for any lag time in compiling amendments to IRC 1986 into periodic versions of Title 26; however, compiled non-Positive Law Titles often have very helpful compiler’s notes for the various sections (see discussion below regarding off-Code provisions). For any serious research project, one should always consult these notes.Since Title 26 is technically a compilation of the Statute at Large–IRC 1986– in theory the OLRC might have authority in making the compilation into Title 26, to correct or otherwise improve the text in Title 26 based on its understanding of purpose and substance. I understand that the OLRC does not attempt such changes to Title 26 but does offer very helpful notes (such as statutory history) that can assist in interpreting IRC 1986 appearing as Title 26.There is a wrinkle here, though. Congress does not re-enact the IRC except on rare occasions with many years intervening (there have been only 3 IRCs since Congress began enacting IRCs in 1939). For large positive law Codes in a dynamic environment (such as tax), the Codes will be amended often. To cite the actual law (as opposed to the 26 U.S.C. compilation) as of a given date, one would have to cite the most recent IRC (in this case, IRC of 1986) and track and cite all statutes amending the relevant section of that IRC. The annual compilation in 26 U.S.C. does that work by bringing its compiled sections up to date frequently (soon after enactment of the amendment to the IRC) with a tracking of the statutes producing up to date text. In many cases, persons needing to cite the IRC cite 26 U.S.C. (which, to repeat, for each year is a mirror image of the most recent IRC), paying attention to the amendments to the IRC to ensure working with the text of the law as applicable to the time period or event in question. Thus, if one cites§ 7805 in a case where 2012 is the relevant year, the citation would be 26 U.S.C. § 7805 (2012) or, in cases where the year is not significant (such as in a law review article discussing law generally, with assumption that it is a current version), one could leave off the year (e.g., 26 U.S.C. § 7805). (I leave off the year in this book except where dating is critical.) A quick and dirty way to use 26 U.S.C. (and indeed all U.S.C. Titles) is to refer to the current version and make sure from the notes that the text has not been amended at any relevant time that would make the current text potentially not applicable. Alternatively, one could cite the original IRC with explanation to show relevant amendments but that is much more tedious than the U.S.C. strategy and, in my experience, rarely done for the IRC. Remember that, as noted above, the Code compilation in the 26 U.S.C. is prima facie evidence of the law. That is generally good enough for the work courts and practitioners do.A similar problem is encountered for statutes that are compiled into Non-Positive Law Titles. The underlying statutes are the law, not the Non-Positive Law Title compilations. Hence, properly, citations to that law should be to the underlying statutes and amendments rather than to the Non-Positive Law Titles. The logistical problem is that the Statutes at Large are not updated with amendments after the date of enactment. Care must be taken in working with Non-Positive Law Titles. The practical solution as with amendments to Positive Law Titles is to work from the relevant version of the U.S.C. compilation where the compilers have done that work and there is a presumption that the compiled version of the relevant statute accurately states the law.As should be apparent, however, Non-Positive Law U.S.C. Titles may not tell the whole story that might be discerned from a direct reading of the Statutes at Large (including original enactment and all amendments and statutory and legislative histories). For example, related sections of the Statutes at Large may be split up in the codification process or even there might be a change in language. Indeed, the same process of peeling back statutory and legislative histories is required for Positive Law Titles (e.g., 18 U.S.C.) which incorporate amendments to statutory text previously enacted.Moreover, there is law–enacted statutes–that is never codified (i.e., for tax legislation, not codified into the IRC of 1986 (then compiled into 26 U.S.C.) and appears only in the Statutes at Large); in such cases, that law either does not appear in the official statutory text of the U.S.C. but, at least sometimes, may appear in a note to a section in the official U.S.C. Title; care should be taken to ensure that third party publishers’ versions of the Title include those notes which can be helpful. A good tax example of such “uncodified” tax law is § 530 of the Revenue Act of 1978, which is legislation giving some taxpayers relief in the ongoing problem of characterizing service providers as employees or independent contractors; that uncodified provision is referred to in a note to 26 U.S.C. § 3401. (I discuss § 530 relief in its context later in the text beginning p. 97.) IRC 1986 does not alert the reader to § 530, but in the compilation into Title 26, the compilers offer helpful notes including the off-Code§ 530 or other editorial comments. But, the compilers are not always so helpful in identifying off-Code law.One issue that I think arises principally for Non-Positive Law Titles (which are compilations of the underlying Statutes at Large) relates to enacted findings and purposes which are statements enacted into the Statutes at Large. The enacted findings and purposes serve the same function as statements and purposes appearing in legislative history. A stated concern for the use of legislative history in statutory interpretation is that it is not enacted. Enacted findings and purposes are enacted and thus serve a legitimate role in statutory interpretation under any interpretive strategy. When a Statute at Large is compiled into the Non-Positive Law Titles, the enacted findings and purposes will usually not be incorporated into the Code sections and will often appear only in notes to the compiled Code sections. It is thus critically important to refer to the Statutes at Large (where the findings and purposes will appear prominently) or to the notes in the Non-Positive Law Titles. This is not an issue for the IRC because the statute is the Code and the findings and purposes appear in the legislative history (usually drafted with the involvement of the staff of the Joint Committee on Taxation (“JCT”)). In all events, it is probably good practice to always read the notes of sections in the Code.The principal statutes cited in this book are all positive law. As noted the IRC itself was enacted as a separate law (rather than as a Code). Where I cite a section without further description, I will be referring to the IRC. When I cite other Code provisions, I will identify the Title. The other commonly cited statutes are positive law Titles:• 5 U.S.C., Government Organizations and Employees (including sections commonly called the Administrative Procedure Act for the source prior to codifying as positive law Title).• 11 U.S.C., Bankruptcy• 18 U.S.C., Crimes and Criminal Procedure• 31 U.S.C., Money and Finance (including the money and financial reporting requirements such as FBARs).
3. For further reading, I recommend the following:
